Science 0973 — specification explorer

1. Solids, liquids and gases

• C1.1.1State the distinguishing properties of solids, liquids and gases
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• C1.1.2Describe the structure of solids, liquids and gases in terms of particle separation, arrangement and motion
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• C1.1.3Describe changes of state in terms of melting, boiling, evaporating, freezing and condensing
• C1.1.4Describe the effects of temperature and pressure on the volume of a gas
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• C1.1.5Explain changes of state in terms of kinetic particle theory, including the interpretation of heating and cooling curves
• C1.1.6Explain, in terms of kinetic particle theory, the effects of temperature and pressure on the volume of a gas
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2. Diffusion

• C1.2.1Describe and explain diffusion in terms of kinetic particle theory
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• C1.2.2Describe and explain the effect of relative molecular mass on the rate of diffusion of gases
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1. Elements, compounds and mixtures

• C2.1.1Describe the differences between elements, compounds and mixtures
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2. Atomic structure and the Periodic Table

• C2.2.1Describe the structure of the atom as a central nucleus containing neutrons and protons, surrounded by electrons in shells
• C2.2.2State the relative charges and relative masses of a proton, a neutron and an electron
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• C2.2.3Define proton number / atomic number as the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom
• C2.2.4Define mass number / nucleon number as the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom
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• C2.2.5Determine the electronic configuration of elements with proton number 1 to 20,
• C2.2.6State that: (a). Group VIII noble gases have a full outer shell (b). the number of outer-shell electrons is equal to the group number in Groups I to VII (c). the number of occupied electron shells is equal to the period number
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3. Isotopes

• C2.3.1Define isotopes as different atoms of the same element that have the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons
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• C2.3.2Interpret and use symbols for atoms, e.g. C , and ions, e.g. C l
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• C2.3.3State that isotopes of the same element have the same chemical properties because they have the same number of electrons and therefore the same electronic configuration
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4. Ions and ionic bonds

• C2.4.1Describe the formation of positive ions, known as cations, and negative ions, known as anions
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• C2.4.2State that an ionic bond is a strong electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions
• C2.4.3Describe the formation of ionic bonds between elements from Group I and Group VII, including the use of dot-and-cross diagrams
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• C2.4.4Describe the properties of ionic compounds: (a). high melting points and boiling points (b). good electrical conductivity when aqueous or molten and poor when solid (c). generally soluble in water
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• C2.4.5Describe the formation of ionic bonds between ions of metallic and non-metallic elements, including the use of dot-and-cross diagrams
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• C2.4.6Explain in terms of structure and bonding the properties of ionic compounds: (a). high melting points and boiling points (b). good electrical conductivity when aqueous or molten and poor when solid
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• C2.4.7Describe the giant lattice structure of ionic compounds as a regular arrangement of alternating positive and negative ions, exemplified by sodium chloride
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5. Simple molecules and covalent bonds

• C2.5.1State that a covalent bond is formed when a pair of electrons is shared between two atoms leading to noble gas electronic configurations
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• C2.5.2Describe the formation of covalent bonds in simple molecules, including H , C l , H O, CH , NH and HC l . Use dot-and- cross diagrams to show the electronic configurations in these molecules
• C2.5.3Describe in terms of structure and bonding the properties of simple molecular compounds: (a). low melting points and boiling points (b). poor electrical conductivity
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• C2.5.4Describe the formation of covalent bonds in simple molecules, including CH OH, C H , O , CO and N . Use dot-and-cross diagrams to show the electronic configurations in these molecules
• C2.5.5Explain in terms of structure and bonding the properties of simple molecular compounds: (a). low melting points and boiling points in terms of weak intermolecular forces (specific types of intermolecular forces are not required) (b). poor electrical conductivity
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6. Giant covalent structures

• C2.6.1Describe the giant covalent structures of graphite and diamond
• C2.6.2Relate the structures and bonding of graphite and diamond to their uses, limited to: (a). graphite as a lubricant and as an electrode (b). diamond in cutting tools

7. Metallic bonding

• C2.7.1Describe metallic bonding as the electrostatic attraction between the positive ions in a giant metallic lattice and a ‘sea’ of delocalised electrons
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• C2.7.2Explain in terms of structure and bonding the properties of metals: (a). good electrical conductivity (b). malleability
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1. Formulas

• C3.1.1State the formulas of the elements and compounds named in the subject content
• C3.1.2Define the molecular formula of a compound as the number and type of atoms in one molecule
• C3.1.3Deduce the formula of a simple molecular compound from the relative numbers of atoms present in a model or a diagrammatic representation
• C3.1.4Construct word equations to show how reactants form products
• C3.1.5Balance and interpret simple symbol equations, including state symbols
• C3.1.6Deduce the formula of an ionic compound from the relative numbers of the ions present in a model or a diagrammatic representation or from the charges on the ions
• C3.1.7Construct symbol equations with state symbols, including ionic equations
• C3.1.8Deduce the symbol equation with state symbols for a chemical reaction, given relevant information

2. Relative masses of atoms and molecules

• C3.2.1Describe relative atomic mass, A , as the average mass of the isotopes of an element compared to 1/12th of the mass of an atom of
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• C3.2.2Define relative molecular mass, M , as the sum of the relative atomic masses. Relative formula mass, M , will be used for ionic compounds
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• C3.2.3Calculate reacting masses in simple proportions (calculations will not involve the mole concept)
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3. The mole and the Avogadro constant

• C3.3.1State that concentration can be measured in
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• C3.3.2State that the mole, mol, is the unit of amount of substance and that one mole contains 6.02 × 10 particles, e.g. atoms, ions, molecules; this number is the Avogadro constant
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• C3.3.3Use the relationship amount of substance (mol) mass (g) = to calculate: molar mass (g/mol) (a). amount of substance (b). mass (c). molar mass (d). relative atomic mass or relative molecular / formula mass
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• C3.3.4Use the molar gas volume, taken as 24 dm at room temperature and pressure, r.t.p., in calculations involving gases
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• C3.3.5Calculate stoichiometric reacting masses, limiting reactants, volumes of gases at r.t.p., including conversion between cm and dm
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1. Electrolysis

• C4.1.1Define electrolysis as the decomposition of an ionic compound, when molten or in aqueous solution, by the passage of an electric current
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• C4.1.2Identify in simple electrolytic cells: (a). the anode as the positive electrode (b). the cathode as the negative electrode (c). the electrolyte as the molten or aqueous substance that undergoes electrolysis
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• C4.1.3Identify the products formed at the electrodes and describe the observations made during the electrolysis of: (a). molten lead( II ) bromide (b). concentrated aqueous sodium chloride (c). dilute sulfuric acid using inert electrodes made of platinum or carbon / graphite
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• C4.1.4Describe the transfer of charge during electrolysis: (a). the movement of electrons in the external circuit (b). the loss or gain of electrons at the electrodes (c). the movement of ions in the electrolyte
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• C4.1.5Identify the products formed at the electrodes and describe the observations made during the electrolysis of aqueous copper( II ) sulfate using carbon / graphite electrodes and when using copper electrodes
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• C4.1.6State that metals or hydrogen are formed at the cathode and that non-metals (other than hydrogen) are formed at the anode
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• C4.1.7Predict the identity of the products at each electrode for the electrolysis of a binary compound in the molten state
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• C4.1.8Construct ionic half-equations for reactions at the cathode (showing gain of electrons as a reduction reaction)
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2. Hydrogen–oxygen fuel cells

• C4.2.1State that a hydrogen–oxygen fuel cell uses hydrogen and oxygen to produce electricity with water as the only chemical product
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• C4.2.2Describe the advantages and disadvantages of using hydrogen–oxygen fuel cells in comparison with gasoline / petrol engines in vehicles
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1. Exothermic and endothermic reactions

• C5.1.1State that an exothermic reaction transfers thermal energy to the surroundings leading to an increase in the temperature of the surroundings
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• C5.1.2State that an endothermic reaction takes in thermal energy from the surroundings leading to a decrease in the temperature of the surroundings
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• C5.1.3Interpret reaction pathway diagrams showing exothermic and endothermic reactions
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• C5.1.4State that the transfer of thermal energy during a reaction is called the enthalpy change, ∆ H , of the reaction. ∆ H is negative for exothermic reactions and positive for endothermic reactions
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• C5.1.5Define activation energy, E , as the minimum energy that colliding particles must have to react
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• C5.1.6Draw and label reaction pathway diagrams for exothermic and endothermic reactions using information provided, to include: (a). reactants (b). products (c). overall energy change of the reaction, ∆ H (d). activation energy, E
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• C5.1.7State that bond breaking is an endothermic process and bond making is an exothermic process
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1. Physical and chemical changes

• C6.1.1Identify physical and chemical changes, and understand the differences between them
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2. Rate of reaction

• C6.2.1Describe the effect on the rate of reaction of: (a). changing the concentration of solutions (b). changing the pressure of gases (c). changing the surface area of solids (d). changing the temperature (e). adding or removing a catalyst
• C6.2.2State that a catalyst increases the rate of a reaction and is unchanged at the end of a reaction
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• C6.2.3Describe practical methods for investigating the rate of a reaction including change in mass of a reactant or product and the formation of a gas
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• C6.2.4Interpret data, including graphs, from rate of reaction experiments
• C6.2.5Explain the effect on the rate of reaction of: (a). changing the concentration of solutions (b). changing the pressure of gases (c). changing the surface area of solids (d). changing the temperature (e). adding or removing a catalyst using collision theory
• C6.2.6State that a catalyst decreases the activation energy, E , of a reaction
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• C6.2.7Describe collision theory in terms of: (a). number of particles per unit volume (b). frequency of collisions between particles (c). kinetic energy of particles (d). activation energy, E

3. Redox

• C6.3.1Define redox reactions as involving simultaneous oxidation and reduction
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• C6.3.2Define oxidation as gain of oxygen and reduction as loss of oxygen
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• C6.3.3Identify redox reactions as reactions involving gain and loss of oxygen
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• C6.3.4Identify oxidation and reduction in redox reactions. (Oxidation number limited to its use to name ions, e.g. iron( II) , iron( III ), copper( II ).)
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• C6.3.5Define oxidation in terms of: (a). loss of electrons (b). an increase in oxidation number (determination of oxidation numbers is not required)
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• C6.3.6Define reduction in terms of: (a). gain of electrons (b). a decrease in oxidation number (determination of oxidation numbers is not required)
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1. The characteristic properties of acids and bases

• C7.1.1Describe the characteristic properties of acids in terms of their reactions with: (a). metals (b). bases (c). carbonates
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• C7.1.2Describe acids in terms of their effect on the indicators: (a). litmus (b). methyl orange
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• C7.1.3State that bases are oxides or hydroxides of metals and that alkalis are soluble bases
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• C7.1.4Describe the characteristic properties of bases in terms of their reactions with acids
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• C7.1.5Describe alkalis in terms of their effect on the indicators: (a). litmus (b). methyl orange
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• C7.1.6Describe how to compare neutrality, relative acidity and relative alkalinity in terms of colour and pH using universal indicator
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• C7.1.7Describe the neutralisation reaction between an acid and an alkali to produce a salt and water (the ionic equation for this reaction is not required)

2. Oxides

• C7.2.1Classify oxides as either acidic, including SO and CO , or basic, including CuO and CaO, related to metallic and non-metallic character
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• C7.2.2Describe amphoteric oxides as oxides that react with acids and with bases to produce a salt and water
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• C7.2.3Classify A l O and ZnO as amphoteric oxides

3. Preparation of salts

• C7.3.1Describe the preparation, separation and purification of soluble salts by reaction of an acid with: (a). an alkali by titration (b). excess metal (c). excess insoluble base (d). excess insoluble carbonate (the general solubility rules for salts are not required)
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• C7.3.2Define a hydrated substance as a substance that is chemically combined with water and an anhydrous substance as a substance containing no water
• C7.3.3Describe the preparation of insoluble salts by precipitation (the general solubility rules for salts are not required)
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1. Arrangement of elements

• C8.1.1Describe the Periodic Table as an arrangement of elements in periods and groups and in order of increasing proton number / atomic number
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• C8.1.2Describe the change from metallic to non‑metallic character across a period
• C8.1.3Explain similarities in the chemical properties of elements in the same group of the Periodic Table in terms of their electronic configuration
• C8.1.4Identify trends in groups, given information about the elements

2. Group I properties

• C8.2.1Describe the Group I alkali metals, lithium, sodium and potassium, as relatively soft metals with general trends down the group, limited to: (a). decreasing melting point (b). increasing density (c). increasing reactivity with water
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• C8.2.2Predict the properties of other elements in Group I, given information about the elements
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3. Group VII properties

• C8.3.1Describe the Group VII halogens, chlorine, bromine and iodine, as diatomic non-metals with general trends down the group, limited to: (a). increasing density (b). decreasing reactivity
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• C8.3.2State the appearance of the halogens at room temperature and pressure, r.t.p., as: (a). chlorine, a pale yellow-green gas (b). bromine, a red-brown liquid (c). iodine, a grey-black solid
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• C8.3.3Describe and explain the displacement reactions of halogens with other halide ions
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• C8.3.4Predict the properties of other elements in Group VII, given information about the elements
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4. Transition elements

• C8.4.1Describe the transition elements as metals that: (a). have high densities (b). have high melting points (c). form coloured compounds (d). often act as catalysts as elements and in compounds
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5. Noble gases

• C8.5.1Describe the Group VIII noble gases as unreactive, monatomic gases and explain this in terms of electronic configuration
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1. Properties of metals

• C9.1.1

  Compare the general physical properties of metals and non-metals, including: (a). thermal conductivity (b). electrical conductivity (d). melting points and boiling points:

  • (c) . malleability and ductility
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• C9.1.2Describe the general chemical properties of metals, limited to their reactions with: (a). dilute acids (b). cold water and steam
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2. Uses of metals

• C9.2.1

  Describe the uses of metals in terms of their physical properties, including: (a). aluminium in the manufacture of aircraft because of its low density electrical cables because of its low density and good electrical conductivity its resistance to corrosion good electrical conductivity:

  • (b) .aluminium in the manufacture of overhead
  • (c) . aluminium in food containers because of
  • (d) .copper in electrical wiring because of its
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3. Alloys and their properties

• C9.3.1

  Describe alloys as mixtures of a metal with other elements, including: other elements such as chromium, nickel and carbon:

  • (a) . brass as a mixture of copper and zinc
  • (b) .stainless steel as a mixture of iron and
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• C9.3.2State that alloys can be harder and stronger than the pure metals and are more useful
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• C9.3.3Describe the use of alloys in terms of their physical properties, including stainless steel in cutlery because of its hardness and resistance to rusting
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• C9.3.4Identify representations of alloys from diagrams of structure
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• C9.3.5Explain in terms of structure how alloys can be harder and stronger than the pure metals because the different sized atoms in alloys mean the layers can no longer slide over each other
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4. Reactivity series

• C9.4.1State the order of the reactivity series as: potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium, aluminium, carbon, zinc, iron, hydrogen, copper, silver, gold
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• C9.4.2

  Describe the reactions, if any, of: (a). potassium, sodium and calcium with cold water gold with dilute hydrochloric acid and explain these reactions in terms of the position of the metals in the reactivity series:

  • (b) .magnesium with steam
  • (c) . magnesium, zinc, iron, copper, silver and
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• C9.4.3Deduce an order of reactivity from a given set of experimental results
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• C9.4.4Describe the relative reactivities of metals in terms of their tendency to form positive ions, by displacement reactions, if any, with the aqueous ions of magnesium, zinc, iron, copper and silver
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5. Corrosion of metals

• C9.5.1State the conditions required for the rusting of iron (presence of oxygen and water)
• C9.5.2State some common barrier methods, including painting, greasing and coating with plastic
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• C9.5.3Describe how barrier methods prevent rusting by excluding oxygen and water
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• C9.5.4Describe the use of zinc in galvanising steel as an example of a barrier method and sacrificial protection
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• C9.5.5Explain sacrificial protection in terms of the reactivity series and in terms of electron loss
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6. Extraction of metals

• C9.6.1Describe the ease in obtaining metals from their ores, related to the position of the metal in the reactivity series
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• C9.6.2State that iron from hematite is extracted by reduction of iron( III ) oxide in the blast furnace
• C9.6.3State that main ore of aluminium is bauxite and that aluminium is extracted by electrolysis
• C9.6.4Describe the extraction of iron from hematite in the blast furnace, limited to: (a). the burning of carbon (coke) to provide heat and produce carbon dioxide C + O → CO (b). the reduction of carbon dioxide to carbon monoxide C + CO → 2CO (c). the reduction of iron( III ) oxide by carbon monoxide Fe O + 3CO → 2Fe + 3CO (d). the thermal decomposition of calcium carbonate / limestone to produce calcium oxide CaCO → CaO + CO (e). the formation of slag CaO + SiO → CaSiO
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1. Water

• C10.1.1Describe chemical tests for the presence of water using anhydrous cobalt( II ) chloride and anhydrous copper( II ) sulfate
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• C10.1.2Describe how to test for the purity of water using melting point and boiling point
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• C10.1.3State that distilled water is used in practical chemistry rather than tap water because it contains fewer chemical impurities
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• C10.1.4Describe the treatment of the domestic water supply in terms of: (a). sedimentation and filtration to remove solids (b). use of carbon to remove tastes and odours (c). chlorination to kill microbes (pathogens)
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2. Air quality and climate

• C10.2.1State the composition of clean, dry air as approximately 78% nitrogen, N , 21% oxygen, O , and the remainder as a mixture of noble gases and carbon dioxide, CO
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• C10.2.2

  State the source of each of these air pollutants, limited to: combustion of carbon-containing fuels the incomplete combustion of carbon- containing fuels of vegetation and waste gases from digestion in animals of fossil fuels which contain sulfur compounds:

  • (a) . carbon dioxide from the complete
  • (b) .carbon monoxide and particulates from
  • (c) . methane from the decomposition
  • (d) .oxides of nitrogen from car engines
  • (e) . sulfur dioxide from the combustion
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• C10.2.3State the adverse effect of these air pollutants, limited to: (a). carbon dioxide: higher levels of carbon dioxide leading to increased global warming, which leads to climate change (b). carbon monoxide: toxic gas (c). particulates: increased risk of respiratory problems and cancer (d). methane: higher levels of methane leading to increased global warming, which leads to climate change (e). oxides of nitrogen: acid rain and respiratory problems (f). sulfur dioxide: acid rain
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• C10.2.4State and explain strategies to reduce the effects of climate change: (a). planting trees (b). reduction in livestock farming (c). decreasing use of fossil fuels (d). increasing use of hydrogen and renewable energy, e.g. wind, solar
• C10.2.5State and explain strategies to reduce the effects of acid rain: reducing emissions of sulfur dioxide by using low-sulfur fuels and flue gas desulfurisation with calcium oxide
• C10.2.6Describe how the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane cause global warming, limited to: (a). the absorption, reflection and emission of thermal energy (b). reducing thermal energy loss to space
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• C10.2.7Explain how oxides of nitrogen form in car engines and describe their removal by catalytic converters, limited to: 2CO + 2NO → 2CO + N

1. Formulas and terminology

• C11.1.1Draw and interpret the displayed formula of a molecule to show all the atoms and all the bonds
• C11.1.2State that a saturated compound has molecules in which all carbon–carbon bonds are single bonds
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• C11.1.3State that an unsaturated compound has molecules in which one or more carbon–carbon bonds are not single bonds
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• C11.1.4State that a homologous series is a family of similar compounds with similar chemical properties
• C11.1.5

  Describe the general characteristics of a homologous series as: specific general formulas is not required):

  • (a) . having the same general formula (recall of
  • (b) .displaying a trend in physical properties

2. Naming organic compounds

• C11.2.1Name and draw the displayed formulas of: (a). methane and ethane (b). ethene (c). ethanol
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• C11.2.2State the type of compound present, given a chemical name ending in - ane , - ene or - ol , or from a molecular formula or displayed formula
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• C11.2.3Name and draw the structural formulas and displayed formulas of unbranched: (a). alkanes (b). alkenes, including but-1-ene and but‑2‑ene ( not cis/trans) containing up to four carbon atoms per molecule
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3. Fuels

• C11.3.1Name the fossil fuels: coal, natural gas and petroleum
• C11.3.2Name methane as the main constituent of natural gas
• C11.3.3State that hydrocarbons are compounds that contain hydrogen and carbon only
• C11.3.4State that petroleum is a mixture of hydrocarbons
• C11.3.5Describe the separation of petroleum into useful fractions by fractional distillation
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• C11.3.6

  Name the uses of the fractions as: heating and cooking cars engines:

  • (a) . refinery gas fraction for gas used in
  • (b) .gasoline / petrol fraction for fuel used in
  • (c) . naphtha fraction as a chemical feedstock
  • (d) .diesel oil / gas oil for fuel used in diesel
  • (e) . bitumen for making roads
• C11.3.7

  Describe how the properties of fractions obtained from petroleum change from the bottom to the top of the fractionating column, limited to: (a). decreasing chain length:

  • (b) .lower boiling points
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4. Alkanes

• C11.4.1State that the bonding in alkanes is single covalent and that alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons
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• C11.4.2Describe the properties of alkanes as being generally unreactive, except in terms of combustion
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5. Alkenes

• C11.5.1State that the bonding in alkenes includes a double carbon–carbon covalent bond and that alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons
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• C11.5.2Describe the test to distinguish between saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons by their reaction with aqueous bromine
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• C11.5.3Describe the manufacture of alkenes and hydrogen by the cracking of larger alkane molecules using a high temperature and a catalyst
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• C11.5.4

  Describe the properties of alkenes in terms of addition reactions with: catalyst:

  • (a) . bromine
  • (b) .hydrogen in the presence of a nickel
  • (c) . steam in the presence of an acid catalyst
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6. Alcohols

• C11.6.1Describe the complete combustion of ethanol
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• C11.6.2State the uses of ethanol as: (a). a solvent (b). a fuel
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7. Polymers

• C11.7.1Define polymers as large molecules built up from many smaller molecules called monomers
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• C11.7.2Describe the formation of poly(ethene) as an example of addition polymerisation using ethene monomers
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• C11.7.3Identify the repeat units in addition polymers and in condensation polymers
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• C11.7.4Deduce the structure or repeat unit of an addition polymer from a given alkene and vice versa
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• C11.7.5Describe the differences between addition and condensation polymerisation
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• C11.7.6Describe and draw the structure of nylon, a polyamide:
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1. Experimental design

• C12.1.1

  Name appropriate apparatus for the measurement of time, temperature, mass and volume, including:

  • (a) . stop-watches
  • (b) .thermometers
  • (c) . balances
  • (d) .burettes
  • (e) . volumetric pipettes
  • (f) . measuring cylinders
  • (g) .gas syringes
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• C12.1.2

  Describe a: solute a solvent solutes dissolved in a solvent the maximum concentration of a solute dissolved in the solvent at a specified temperature after evaporation, distillation, filtration or any similar process passed through a filter:

  • (a) . solvent as a substance that dissolves a
  • (b) .solute as a substance that is dissolved in
  • (c) . solution as a mixture of one or more
  • (d) .saturated solution as a solution containing
  • (e) . residue as a solid substance that remains
  • (f) . filtrate as a liquid or solution that has
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2. Acid-base titrations

• C12.2.1Describe an acid–base titration to include the use of a: (a). burette (b). volumetric pipette (c). suitable indicator
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• C12.2.2Describe how to identify the end-point of a titration using an indicator
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3. Chromatography

• C12.3.1Describe how paper chromatography is used to separate mixtures of soluble coloured substances, using a suitable solvent
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• C12.3.2

  Interpret simple chromatograms to identify: known substances:

  • (a) . unknown substances by comparison with
  • (b) .pure and impure substances
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• C12.3.3State and use the equation for R : distance travelled by substance distance travelled by solvent

4. Separation and purification

• C12.4.1

  Describe and explain methods of separation and purification using:

  • (a) . a suitable solvent
  • (b) .filtration
  • (c) . crystallisation
  • (d) .simple distillation
  • (e) . fractional distillation
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• C12.4.2Suggest suitable separation and purification techniques, given information about the substances involved
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• C12.4.3Identify substances and assess their purity from melting point and boiling point information
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5. Identification of ions and gases

• C12.5.1

  Describe tests to identify the anions: (a). carbonate, CO , by reaction with dilute acid and then testing for carbon dioxide gas (b). chloride, C l , bromide, Br , and iodide, I , by acidifying with dilute nitric acid then adding aqueous silver nitrate (c). nitrate, NO , reduction with aluminium foil and aqueous sodium hydroxide and then testing for ammonia gas (d). sulfate, SO , by acidifying with dilute nitric acid and then adding aqueous barium nitrate:

  • –
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• C12.5.2Describe tests using aqueous sodium hydroxide and aqueous ammonia to identify the aqueous cations: (a). ammonium, NH (b). calcium, Ca (c). copper( II ), Cu (d). iron( II ), Fe (e). iron( III ), Fe (f). zinc, Zn (formulas of complex ions are not required)
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• C12.5.3Describe tests to identify the gases: (a). ammonia, NH , using damp red litmus paper (b). carbon dioxide, CO , using limewater (c). chlorine, C l , using damp litmus paper (d). hydrogen, H , using a lighted splint (e). oxygen, O , using a glowing splint
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• C12.5.4Describe the use of a flame test to identify the cations: (a). lithium, Li (b). sodium, Na (c). potassium, K (d). copper( II ), Cu
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