Chemistry — A-Level
All 356 specification statements from the official Cambridge International specification, as printed.
1. Particles in the atom and atomic radius
2. Isotopes
3. Electrons, energy levels and atomic orbitals
understand the terms:
4. Ionisation energy
1. Relative masses of atoms and molecules
2. The mole and the Avogadro constant
3. Formulas
write formulas of ionic compounds from ionic charges and oxidation numbers (shown by a Roman numeral), including: HCO , PO:
(a) write and construct equations (which should be balanced), including ionic equations (which should not include spectator ions):
4. Reacting masses and volumes (of solutions and gases)
perform calculations including use of the mole concept, involving: (When performing calculations, candidates’ answers should reflect the number of significant figures given or asked for in the question. When rounding up or down, candidates should ensure that significant figures are neither lost unnecessarily nor used beyond what is justified (see also Mathematical requirements section).):
1. Electronegativity and bonding
2. Ionic bonding
3. Metallic bonding
4. Covalent bonding and coordinate (dative covalent) bonding
define covalent bonding as electrostatic attraction between the nuclei of two atoms and a shared pair of electrons:
6 sulfur dioxide, SO , phosphorus pentachloride, PC l , and sulfur hexafluoride, SF hydrogen chloride gases to form the ammonium ion, NH , and in the A l C l molecule 2 (a) describe covalent bonds in terms of orbital overlap giving σ and π bonds:
(a) define the terms: gaseous state molecules:
5. Shapes of molecules
state and explain the shapes of, and bond angles in, molecules by using VSEPR theory, including as simple examples:
6. Intermolecular forces, electronegativity and bond properties
(a) describe hydrogen bonding, limited to molecules containing N–H and O–H groups, including ammonia and water as simple examples:
(a) describe van der Waals’ forces as the intermolecular forces between molecular entities other than those due to bond formation, and use the term van der Waals’ forces as a generic term to describe all intermolecular forces permanent dipole–permanent dipole forces between molecules where hydrogen is bonded to a highly electronegative atom:
7. Dot-and-cross diagrams
1. The gaseous state: ideal and real gases and pV = nRT
2. Bonding and structure
describe, in simple terms, the lattice structure of a crystalline solid which is:
1. Enthalpy change, Δ H
define and use the terms: neutralisation, Δ H neut:
2. Hess’s law
carry out calculations using cycles and relevant energy terms, including:
1. Redox processes: electron transfer and changes in oxidation number (oxidation state)
1. Chemical equilibria: reversible reactions, dynamic equilibrium
(a) understand what is meant by a reversible reaction reactions being equal and the concentration of reactants and products remaining constant:
2. Brønsted–Lowry theory of acids and bases
1. Rate of reaction
2. Effect of temperature on reaction rates and the concept of activation energy
3. Homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysts
explain and use the terms catalyst and catalysis: activation energy effective catalyst:
1. Periodicity of physical properties of the elements in Period
2. Periodicity of chemical properties of the elements in Period
3. Chemical periodicity of other elements
1. Similarities and trends in the properties of the Group 2 metals, magnesium to barium, and
1. Physical properties of the Group 17 elements
2. The chemical properties of the halogen elements and the hydrogen halides
3. Some reactions of the halide ions
describe and explain the reactions of halide ions with:
2 complex is not required):
4. The reactions of chlorine
1. Nitrogen and sulfur
describe and explain:
1. Formulas, functional groups and the naming of organic compounds
2. Characteristic organic reactions
interpret and use the following terminology associated with types of organic compounds and reactions: (in equations for organic redox reactions, the symbol [O] can be used to represent one atom of oxygen from an oxidising agent and the symbol [H] to represent one atom of hydrogen from a reducing agent):
understand and use the following terminology associated with types of organic mechanisms: (in organic reaction mechanisms, the use of curly arrows to represent movement of electron pairs is expected; the arrow should begin at a bond or a lone pair of electrons):
3. Shapes of organic molecules; σ and π bonds
4. Isomerism: structural isomerism and stereoisomerism
1. Alkanes
recall the reactions (reagents and conditions) by which alkanes can be produced:
3 2 describe: by the reactions of ethane:
2. Alkenes
recall the reactions (including reagents and conditions) by which alkenes can be produced:
3 (e.g. concentrated H SO ) 2 describe the following reactions of alkenes:
1. Halogenoalkanes
recall the reactions (reagents and conditions) by which halogenoalkanes can be produced:
2 by the reactions of ethane concentrated H PO ; or with PC l and heat; or with PC l ; or with SOC l:
4 3 5 2 2 classify halogenoalkanes into primary, secondary and tertiary 3 describe the following nucleophilic substitution reactions: exemplified by bromoethane:
1. Alcohols
recall the reactions (reagents and conditions) by which alcohols can be produced:
3 4 2 describe: H SO or concentrated H PO ; or with PC l and heat; or with PC l ; or with SOC l (ii) carboxylic acids by refluxing (primary alcohols give aldehydes which can be further oxidised to carboxylic acids, secondary alcohols give ketones, tertiary alcohols cannot be oxidised) exemplified by ethanol:
(a) classify alcohols as primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols, to include examples with more than one alcohol group from orange to green:
1. Aldehydes and ketones
recall the reactions (reagents and conditions) by which aldehydes and ketones can be produced:
2 7 4 produce aldehydes produce ketones 2 describe: hydroxynitriles as exemplified by ethanal and propanone:
1. Carboxylic acids
recall the reactions by which carboxylic acids can be produced:
2 7 4 2 describe:
2. Esters
recall the reaction (reagents and conditions) by which esters can be produced: catalyst:
1. Primary amines
recall the reactions by which amines can be produced:
2. Nitriles and hydroxynitriles
recall the reactions by which nitriles can be produced:
recall the reactions by which hydroxynitriles can be produced:
1. Addition polymerisation
1. Organic synthesis
for an organic molecule containing several functional groups:
1. Infrared spectroscopy
2. Mass spectrometry
1. Lattice energy and Born-Haber cycles
define and use the terms: latt:
(a) define and use the term first electron affinity, EA:
2. Enthalpies of solution and hydration
3. Entropy change, Δ S
predict and explain the sign of the entropy changes that occur:
4. Gibbs free energy change, Δ G
1. Electrolysis
calculate:
2. Standard electrode potentials E , standard cell potentials E and the Nernst equation
define the terms:
describe methods used to measure the standard electrode potentials of:
use standard cell potentials to: external circuit of a simple cell:
1. Acids and bases
calculate [H (aq)] and pH values for:
(a) define a buffer solution blood:
(a) understand and use the common ion effect to explain the different solubility of a compound in a solution containing a common ion:
2. Partition coefficients
1. Simple rate equations, orders of reaction and rate constants
(a) understand and use rate equations of the form rate = k [A] [B] (for which m and n are 0, 1 or 2) the initial rates method and half-life method graphs:
(a) show understanding that the half-life of a first-order reaction is independent of concentration:
calculate the numerical value of a rate constant, for example by:
for a multi-step reaction: overall reaction reaction:
2. Homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysts (26.2)
describe the mode of action of a heterogeneous catalyst to include adsorption of reactants, bond weakening and desorption of products, for example: gases of car engines:
describe the mode of action of a homogeneous catalyst by being used in one step and reformed in a later step, for example:
1. Similarities and trends in the properties of the Group 2 metals, magnesium to barium, and (27.1)
1. General physical and chemical properties of the first row of transition elements, titanium to
understand that transition elements have the following properties:
2. General characteristic chemical properties of the first set of transition elements, titanium to
understand and use the terms: ethanedioate ion, C O:
(a) state what is meant by coordination number the ligand and its coordination number or geometry:
describe the reactions of, and perform calculations involving:
3. Colour of complexes
describe the splitting of degenerate d orbitals into two non-degenerate sets of d orbitals of higher energy, and use of Δ E in:
4. Stereoisomerism in transition element complexes
describe the types of stereoisomerism shown by complexes, including those associated with bidentate ligands: [Co(NH ) (H O) ] and [Ni(H NCH CH NH ) (H O) ]:
5. Stability constants, K
1. Formulas, functional groups and the naming of organic compounds (29.1)
2. Characteristic organic reactions (29.2)
understand and use the following terminology associated with types of organic mechanisms:
3. Shapes of aromatic organic molecules; σ and π bonds
4. Isomerism: optical
explain the relevance of chirality to the synthetic preparation of drug molecules including: (Candidates should appreciate that compounds can contain more than one chiral centre, but knowledge of meso compounds and nomenclature such as diastereoisomers is not required.):
1. Arenes
describe the chemistry of arenes as exemplified by the following reactions of benzene and methylbenzene: halogenoarenes (aryl halides) 25 °C and 60 °C acid:
describe the mechanism of electrophilic substitution in arenes: predomination of substitution over addition:
1. Halogen compounds
1. Alcohols (32.1)
2. Phenol
recall the reactions (reagents and conditions) by which phenol can be produced: salt; further warming of the diazonium salt with H₂O to give phenol:
recall the chemistry of phenol, as exemplified by the following reactions: 2-nitrophenol and 4-nitrophenol:
1. Carboxylic acids (33.1)
recall the reaction by which benzoic acid can be produced: methylbenzene:
recognise that some carboxylic acids can be further oxidised: acidified KMnO₄ or acidified K₂Cr₂O₇ to carbon dioxide and water:
2. Esters (33.2)
recall the reaction by which esters can be produced: as examples:
3. Acyl chlorides
recall the reactions (reagents and conditions) by which acyl chlorides can be produced:
describe the following reactions of acyl chlorides:
1. Primary and secondary amines
recall the reactions (reagents and conditions) by which primary and secondary amines are produced:
2. Phenylamine and azo compounds
describe: diazonium salt; further warming of the diazonium salt with H₂O to give phenol:
recall the following about azo compounds: compound:
3. Amides
recall the reactions (reagents and conditions) by which amides are produced:
describe the reactions of amides:
4. Amino acids
1. Condensation polymerisation
describe the formation of polyesters:
describe the formation of polyamides:
2. Predicting the type of polymerisation
3. Degradable polymers
1. Organic synthesis (36.1)
for an organic molecule containing several functional groups:
1. Thin-layer chromatography
describe and understand the terms:
2. Gas / liquid chromatography
describe and understand the terms:
3. Carbon-13 NMR spectroscopy
analyse and interpret a carbon-13 NMR spectrum of a simple molecule to deduce:
4. Proton ( H) NMR spectroscopy
analyse and interpret a proton ( H) NMR spectrum of a simple molecule to deduce: is attached from the splitting pattern, using the n + 1 rule (limited to singlet, doublet, triplet, quartet and multiplet):